Richard II's tale of
a lawful but weak king deposed by an ambitious noble who founded
a dynasty is rife with political implications. The play was written
and first performed at the end of Elizabeth I's childless reign,
a reign that had survived numerous attempts to destabilize and destroy
it. Its composition and performance history reflects many of the
tensions inherent in the work.
To appreciate Shakespeare's analysis of
kingship and usurpation in Richard II, it is necessary
to understand both its "backstory" and its part in Shakespeare's
dramatization of the "Wars of the Roses." One of Richard
II's challenges is making sense of its backstory. To an audience
not intimately familiar with British medieval history, the opening
scene in which Henry Bolingbroke trades accusations of treasons
with Thomas Mowbray might seem bewildering.
Composition
and Performance History
Richard
II—originally titled "The
Tragedie of King Richard II"—was
composed at some point before August 1597, when it was entered in
the Register of the Stationer’s Company (the monopolistic
guild that controlled the publishing “industry”). Several
versions of the play exist because it was published in 5 different
quartos (1597, 1598, 1608, 1615) before being published in the First
Folio in 1623. Richard II was the only Shakespeare play to be published
in three editions in the space of two years—once in 1597 and
twice in 1598—suggesting that it was quite popular at the
time. Interestingly, the first three quartos all lack the deposition
scene (Act IV, scene i). Although there is no external
evidence to support this, it is commonly believed that the deposition
scene was censored by the Master of Revels (the official censor
of theatrical productions).
Such censorship is understandable
in light of the delicate political situation at the time. Elizabeth
I was reaching the end of her life, it was known that she would
not have children, and she refused to name an heir. There were tensions
at the court as various factions competed for her favor. The main
factions were divided between support for Robert Cecil, Elizabeth’s
principal secretary, and Robert Devereaux, the 2nd Earl of Essex.
Richard II’s subject—the removal of a weak and childless
king to make way for a strong one with children—was potentially
incendiary.
How incendiary is evidenced
by its use as a rallying cry for Essex’ revolt. Essex had
become a favorite of the queen in 1587, and, after her longtime-favorite
Leicester died, Essex assumed greater importance. He was arrogant
and impertinent, however; he once drew a sword after Elizabeth boxed
him on the ear. His downfall came when he returned from Ireland,
without royal permission, after failing to suppress a revolt. Probably
aware that his unsanctioned return could mean trouble, he showed
up in Elizabeth’s bedroom before she was dressed and wigged.
After this, he was imprisoned
in his home and charged with dereliction of duty in Ireland. Six
months later—and after Essex intrigued to replace Elizabeth
with James VI of Scotland—he was tried for treason and convicted
(1600). His life was spared, but his income was in ruins. Furious,
he plotted to regain his ascendant position by invading the palace
and forcing an audience. The day before the uprising, Essex’
supporters paid for a performance of Richard II at the Globe. In
what is almost certainly an apocryphal story, Elizabeth, upon hearing
of the performance, is said to have remarked, “I am Richard
II, know ye not that?” Londoners, however, did not rally to
his side, and he was arrested, tried and convicted again, and this
time executed (February 1601).
The
"Backstory"
 |
Portrait
of King Richard II and Ralph, 1st Lord Lumley |
Richard was an unexpected child
king. He was the second son of Edward,
the "Black Prince"the heir to Edward III. His older brother's
death elevated Richard to second-in-line to the throne, but it was
his warrior father's death from a wasting illness that catapulted
Richard to become the heir apparent. One year later (1377), Edward
III was dead and Richard king, at the age of 10.
During Richard's minority, England
was governed by three successive councils, but the unofficial regent
was Richard's uncle, John
of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. When Richard was 14 (1381), he
suppressed the Peasants' Revolt, although not before the rebels
stormed the Tower of London and killed Richard's Lord Chancellor
(who was also the Archbishop of Canterbury) and the Lord Treasurer.
Richard's
Marriages. Two years after the Peasants Revolt,
Richard II married Anne of Bohemia, in what became--if it did not
start as--a love match. Anne and Richard were devoted to each other
but the marriage produced no children. Anne was said to have had
a moderating influence on Richard, who strongly believed in the
divine right of kings and whose temper could be fierce. Anne died
in 1394, and Richard was reportedly devastated. Two years later,
as a part of a peace agreement with France, Richard married the
seven year-old daughter of the French King, Isabella of Valois.
The marriage was never consummated, and Isabella was only 11 when
Richard was deposed. Richard treated his child-bride with affection,
however, and Isabella was apparently very fond of him. Shakespeare's
depiction of Richard's queen appears to be a combination of Isabella
and Anne; the unnamed Queen is French, but also an adult with a
passionate and romantic attachment to her husband.
The
Lords Appellant. Following his marriage to Anne
of Bohemia, Richard took steps to establish his own authority. As
part of this process, he sidelined nobles who had been part of the
ruling councils, including his ambitious uncle, Thomas of Woodstock,
Duke of Gloucester ("Gloucester"), and the Earls of Warwick
and Arundel. In their place he installed favorites including Robert
de Vere, the Earl of Oxford.
While John of Gaunt was out
of the country, Gloucester, Warwick, and Arundel led the Lords Appellant,
a group of nobles who opposed Richard's pursuit of peace with France.
They were joined by, among others, John of Gaunt's son Henry
Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby and Northampton, and the future Henry
IV. The Lords Appellant (called this because they were supposedly
"appealing" to Richard for good government) pressured
the 1386 Parliament to insist that Richard dismiss his councilors;
when Richard refused and arrested Arundel, the Lords Appellant rallied
their superior military forces and defeated de Vere's army. De Vere
fled England, and Richard was imprisoned in the Tower of London.
The "Merciless" Parliament forcibly disposed of many of
the unpopular councilors, executing eight for treason and exiling
others.
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